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Sustainability is defined here as the conscientious management of resources and waste necessary to meet the physiologic requirements of companion animals without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their environmental, social, or economic needs.
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Life-cycle analysis of pet foods has identified that the most significant impact category to the environment is climate change (quantified as kg co2 eq), with wet foods tending to have a greater impact than dry foods, and dogs having a greater impact than cats.
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Opportunities for improvement in sustainability exist at all phases of the pet food life cycle, including formulation, ingredient selection, manufacturing processes, packaging materials, transportation methods, reduction of food and packaging wastes, and proper disposal of pet waste.
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Veterinarians have a central role as a resource for clients on diet selection, feeding management, and proper pet waste disposal practices, as well as the sustainable farming of livestock animals.
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The advancement of sustainable practices in companion animal care will require a collaborative effort between pet food industry stakeholders, veterinarians, and pet owners.
Introduction
The overuse of resources has become a concern as world populations increase. The environmental footprint of pet ownership and provision of necessary supplies and food for pets on the use of natural resources, emissions, and waste are also growing. The questions regarding the size of that impact and where opportunities for improvement exist begin with the pet owner and the general public's perception of the topic regarding sustainability and move upstream to the raw material suppliers, food manufacturing companies, packaging producers, and transportation sectors. Overcoming barriers to sustainability will require the implementation of successful intervention strategies, and the pet owner will need to assign value to this effort, as sustainable products are likely to cost more at retail. The following objectives are critical to the discussion of sustainability of pet food: (1) to define sustainability and its importance to veterinary practitioners; (2) to describe the life-cycle analysis (LCA) of the pet food industry and identify areas for improvement; (3) to determine how food process, product type, nutrient composition, and ingredient selection might influence the sustainability of pet foods; and (4) to provide veterinarians information about the pet food LCA in order to educate pet owners in areas where they can influence sustainability.
Current knowledge
Environmental Impact of Dog and Cat Ownership
According to recent US pet ownership statistics, two-thirds of US households are estimated to own at least 1 pet across nearly 85 million homes.
Companion animals enrich the lives of their owners in numerous ways, such as increasing physical activity, lowering blood pressure, and reducing risks of certain heart diseases.
Pet ownership has also been associated with psychological benefits, including increased self-esteem in children, reduced risk of depression, and increased social engagement and cohesion.
Despite the many rewards of pet ownership, our pet-centric way of life may take a toll on the environment. The growing populations of urbanized pets have been linked to loss of wildlife biodiversity because of predation and disturbance, as well as a greater consumption of goods and services.
Driven largely by humanization and concern for their pet’s well-being, owners serve generous portions of food and treats and supply products that support a comfortable and stimulating environment. Many pets receive regular veterinary care and participate in a variety of vocational and social activities. It is estimated that the cumulative US pet industry expenditures reached $95.7 billion in 2019, with pet food and treats making up the largest sales segment (38%), followed by veterinary care and product sales (31%), and then supplies and other services.
All of these place a demand, either directly or indirectly, on the consumption of natural resources and energy and generation of waste into the environment.
Pet excrement (urine and feces) is perhaps the most widely scrutinized contributor to impact the environment. Dog and cat feces present a public health risk because of the potential for pathogenic, parasitic, or antibiotic-resistant microorganism transmission through direct contact or contamination of municipal waterways, especially in urban areas where human and animal populations are dense.
Abandoned pet waste carried into nearby streams or lakes by stormwater also contains nutrients that can encourage excessive algae growth and release ammonia, which can be toxic to fish and other aquatic wildlife.
Alternative methods of disposal of pet feces include passage through sanitary sewage lines (eg, flushing) or in municipal solid waste channels (eg, landfill). The latter is the preferred method recommended by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA); however, decaying fecal material results in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in the form of co2, nh3, ch4, and n2o.
Several researchers have also evaluated the environmental impact of dogs and cats based on annual pet food consumption, with results ranging from 27 to 1444 kg co2 eq per year for dogs (Table 1), and 43 to 228 kg co2 eq per year for cats (Table 2). Because pet excrement is a direct product of food intake, it could be argued that pet food production and consumer purchasing behaviors should shoulder the responsibility of environmental stewardship. Thus, considering sustainability as it relates to all aspects of pet food allows for a broader understanding of the environmental impact of our pets.
Table 1Summary of climate change impact (co2 eq) estimations of dog ownership
Sector
Functional Unit
Assumptions
Footprint Estimation
Geographic Area
Source
Wet dog food
Annual impact for 1 pet
Only includes products sold and consumed in the European Union Average dog weighs 15 kg Excludes impact of use stage
European Pet Food Industry Federation (FEDIAF); C&D Foods; FACCO, Chambre Syndicale des Fabricants d’Aliments pour Chiens, Chats, Oiseaux et autres Animaux Familiers (the French Pet Food Association for Dogs, Cats, Birds and Other Domestic Pets); Mars PetCare Europe; Nestlé Purina PetCare Europe; Saturn Petcare GmbH, and Quantis. Product environmental footprint category rules (PEFCRs): prepared pet food for cats and dogs, final version; European Commission: Brussels, Belgium.
European Pet Food Industry Federation (FEDIAF); C&D Foods; FACCO, Chambre Syndicale des Fabricants d’Aliments pour Chiens, Chats, Oiseaux et autres Animaux Familiers (the French Pet Food Association for Dogs, Cats, Birds and Other Domestic Pets); Mars PetCare Europe; Nestlé Purina PetCare Europe; Saturn Petcare GmbH, and Quantis. Product environmental footprint category rules (PEFCRs): prepared pet food for cats and dogs, final version; European Commission: Brussels, Belgium.
European Pet Food Industry Federation (FEDIAF); C&D Foods; FACCO, Chambre Syndicale des Fabricants d’Aliments pour Chiens, Chats, Oiseaux et autres Animaux Familiers (the French Pet Food Association for Dogs, Cats, Birds and Other Domestic Pets); Mars PetCare Europe; Nestlé Purina PetCare Europe; Saturn Petcare GmbH, and Quantis. Product environmental footprint category rules (PEFCRs): prepared pet food for cats and dogs, final version; European Commission: Brussels, Belgium.
European Pet Food Industry Federation (FEDIAF); C&D Foods; FACCO, Chambre Syndicale des Fabricants d’Aliments pour Chiens, Chats, Oiseaux et autres Animaux Familiers (the French Pet Food Association for Dogs, Cats, Birds and Other Domestic Pets); Mars PetCare Europe; Nestlé Purina PetCare Europe; Saturn Petcare GmbH, and Quantis. Product environmental footprint category rules (PEFCRs): prepared pet food for cats and dogs, final version; European Commission: Brussels, Belgium.
Sustainability has previously been defined as practices that ensure the current population meets their requirements without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs.
The EPA defines sustainability as a harmonious and productive system in which humans and nature could exist, permitting the fulfilment of social, economic, and other requirements of the present generation without jeopardizing the needs and requirements of future generations.
From the perspective of pet food production, sustainability has been defined as the ability to produce pet food in adequate amounts while providing the sufficient essential nutrients required to maintain optimum health and viability now and in the future with the smallest environmental footprint.
Here, the authors propose a broader definition for sustainability that incorporates the stewardship of companion animals: the conscientious management of resources and waste necessary to meet the physiologic requirements of companion animals without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their environmental, social, or economic needs.
Quantifying Carbon Footprints with Pet Food Life-Cycle Analysis
The environmental impact of a food system can be quantified by analyzing all material inputs (energy and natural resources) and outputs (waste and emissions) and their associated costs, a process known as LCA. Following ISO 14044:2006 standards, LCA serves as a globally recognized model framework to study the environmental impact categories associated with a product or process such as climate change (biogenic and land use and transformation), ozone depletion, human toxicity risk (cancerous and noncancerous), particulate matter, ionizing radiation, photochemical ozone formation, acidification, eutrophication (terrestrial, freshwater, and marine), freshwater ecotoxicity, and natural resource use.
The LCA of dog and cat foods is highly complex considering the variety of raw materials, manufacturing technologies, and packaging options that exist today. The environmental impact of food and agricultural systems can differ considerably.
Geographic location also influences the environmental burden of agricultural products, in terms of both production and transportation. In addition to raw material extraction, manufacturing technology (eg, extrusion, canning, baking, freeze-drying), nutritional composition of product (eg, moisture and protein level), packaging specifications, distribution channel, and storage and usage requirements are additional factors interlinked with a product’s carbon footprint.
Despite these many complexities, in 2018 the European Commission adopted the Product Environmental Footprint Category Rules (PEFCRs) as a standardized model for calculating environmental impacts for the full life cycle of prepared pet foods for dogs and cats. The model development consists of 4 LCA studies of complete pet foods sold in Europe representing cat and dog foods, kibble, and canned foods. Dog food (wet and dry) collectively had a greater environmental impact than cat food because of higher consumption volume of dog food. The estimated impact of wet food also exceeded dry food because of the high use of natural resources for packaging production (tin plating). Overall, the most relevant impact categories for pet food were determined to be climate change, eutrophication (freshwater, marine, terrestrial), land use, and natural resource depletion (water, mineral, and fossil).
European Pet Food Industry Federation (FEDIAF); C&D Foods; FACCO, Chambre Syndicale des Fabricants d’Aliments pour Chiens, Chats, Oiseaux et autres Animaux Familiers (the French Pet Food Association for Dogs, Cats, Birds and Other Domestic Pets); Mars PetCare Europe; Nestlé Purina PetCare Europe; Saturn Petcare GmbH, and Quantis. Product environmental footprint category rules (PEFCRs): prepared pet food for cats and dogs, final version; European Commission: Brussels, Belgium.
Although the PEFCRs were developed using data sets for EU energy reporting, pet food production in the United States follows a similar life cycle (Fig. 1), and thus, the principles of the PEFCRs could be applied to the US pet food systems.
Fig. 1A generic LCA for commercially prepared pet food beginning with raw material extraction and tracing through manufacturing, packaging, distribution, retail, usage, and end-of-life disposal.
There are 2 defining attributes that influence the path of a pet food product’s life cycle. Diet selection, which dictates the intended species, life stage, food format, and inclusion or exclusion of specific ingredients, and nutritional composition, which determines the level of raw materials needed to achieve the desired nutrient levels, both of which have a direct impact on the resources required to construct a product.
Protein is the most expensive and ecologically demanding macronutrient, yet is a key factor for the selection of pet food products by pet owners.
Pets require a moderate level of protein in their diets, with Association of American Feed Control Officials minimums set at 18% for adult dogs and 26% for adult cats on a dry matter (DM) basis.
However, high-protein formulas (>30% crude protein on a DM basis) are commonly marketed for both species, as more protein may be needed to maintain lean body mass and support the needs of older dogs and cats, and working dogs, as examples. The idea that protein levels in excess of an animal’s requirement are beneficial is debatable and adds strain to the increasing global demand for protein for humans, agricultural animals, and companion animals.
There is a belief, shared by 29.4% of dog owners and 21.7% of cat owners, that raw diets are healthier for their pets; however, only 3.9% of veterinary professionals agree with this.
One in 5 pet owners also report following raw feeding practices originating from online resources rather than published references or seeking veterinary advice, which may exacerbate nutritional or safety risks associated with raw feeding.
In addition, the handling and storage of the leftover raw pet food can become a safety concern to pet owners because of the high risk of exposure to pathogens.
The American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA) also discourages feeding pets raw animal-based foods, especially those that have not gone through pathogen elimination steps during processing.
Dog and cat owners generally prefer meat as a source of protein for their pets compared with alternative sources, such as insect proteins, vegetable proteins, or laboratory-grown meats.
Animal-based ingredients are considered to be a high-quality source of dietary protein, containing a complete profile of essential amino acids dogs and cats require. However, these tend to have a greater ecological footprint as compared with plant-based proteins (Table 3).
CAN = Canada; DEU = Germany; ENG = England; ESP = Spain; FRA = France; GBR = United Kingdom; NZL = New Zealand; PRT = Portugal; USA = United States of America
Godard C, Boissy J, Suret C, et al. LCA of Starch Potato from Field to Starch Production Plant Gate. In: 8th International Conference on LCA in the Agri-Food Sector. October 2-4 2012; Rennes, France.
1 CAN = Canada; DEU = Germany; ENG = England; ESP = Spain; FRA = France; GBR = United Kingdom; NZL = New Zealand; PRT = Portugal; USA = United States of America
Antibiotic-free protein sources, especially poultry, have become increasingly popular in both human food and pet food. This popularity is attributed to a widely accepted belief that antibiotic-free products are healthier and safer; however, there are no scientific data to support the nutritional superiority of the antibiotic-free animal tissues.
Antibiotic-free animal production, in turn, has potentially adverse effects on the sustainability aspects of the food chain because of compromised animal health, reduced production efficiency, and increased costs of production.
The AVMA recommends the judicious use of medically important antimicrobials in animal production in order TO sustain their utility for both man and animal.
A by-product, by regulatory definitions, is merely the secondary product produced from manufacturing the primary product. Critics would suggest this presumes the secondary product has little value. The authors’ way of thinking should probably shift to that of a “coproduct,” in which the entire value proposition is considered. Presuming that there will be meat consumption by the North American human population for the foreseeable future, the proper use of all the available resources, including animal by-products, is necessary.
Average carcass yield, or dressing percentage, ranges between 50% and 74% of live animal weight for red meat, pork, and poultry products in the United States, leaving behind a significant portion of animal-derived material that does not enter the human food system.
Clean animal offals, for example, provide good-quality protein and higher levels of trace minerals, such as iron, zinc, calcium, and copper, in comparison to muscle tissues and can be incorporated into pet foods in raw, dried, or rendered forms.
According to the National Renderers Association, 56 billion pounds of renderable raw material is diverted from landfills and recycled into useable fat, oil, and protein products annually in North America.
Rendering also avoids at least 90% of potential GHG emissions when compared with industrial composting, which is equivalent to removing more than 12 million cars from the road.
Exchanging protein sources of animal origin with those of plant origin has been proposed to improve the sustainability of pet foods by using fewer natural resources and maintaining a smaller carbon footprint.
Animal-based proteins are widely perceived as superior in quality for dogs and cats compared with plant-based proteins; however, the relative digestibility has been reported to be similar between both sources.
Cats have increased protein digestibility as compared to dogs and improve their ability to absorb protein as dietary protein intake shifts from animal to plant sources.
Plant-based proteins generally contain a limited amount of 1 or 2 essential amino acids, which reduces their overall protein quality. However, by combining complementary ingredients, those that provide an abundance of the limiting amino acids of the other, the overall quality of plant-based protein can be at least as good as that from animal-source proteins.
Dogs, being omnivores, are well adapted for a plant-based diet; however, cats are obligate carnivores, so are not able to meet their nutritional requirements from unsupplemented plant-based diets alone.
In addition to providing bioavailable protein, fat, and energy to pets (Table 4), plant-based ingredients and their coproducts possess food-functional properties as well. An ingredient that is currently underutilized but has substantial availability includes distillers dried grains with solubles (DDGS) derived from ethanol production. For instance, 50 kg of corn yields approximately 20.8 L of ethanol, which reduces the dependence on fossil fuels and generates 13.9 kg of DDGS. DDGS contain moderate levels of protein and fermentable fiber and improve palatability in pet food applications.
Plant-based coproduct inclusion in foods for pets supports environmental sustainability by using every aspect of the respective crop and supports economic sustainability by increasing the number of competitively priced ingredients available to pet food formulators.
Table 4Proximate composition (as-is basis) of select pet food ingredients and coproducts
Prediction of crude protein, extractable fat, calcium and phosphorus contents of broiler chicken carcasses using near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy.
The amino acid composition and protein quality of various egg, poultry meal by-products, and vegetable proteins used in the production of dog and cat diets.
The amino acid composition and protein quality of various egg, poultry meal by-products, and vegetable proteins used in the production of dog and cat diets.
The amino acid composition and protein quality of various egg, poultry meal by-products, and vegetable proteins used in the production of dog and cat diets.
The amino acid composition and protein quality of various egg, poultry meal by-products, and vegetable proteins used in the production of dog and cat diets.
The amino acid composition and protein quality of various egg, poultry meal by-products, and vegetable proteins used in the production of dog and cat diets.
The amino acid composition and protein quality of various egg, poultry meal by-products, and vegetable proteins used in the production of dog and cat diets.
Dried texturized vegetable protein is an example of a modern meat analogue that can be made from extruded defatted soy meal, soy protein concentrates, or wheat gluten.
Plant-based proteins with elastic or spongy textures, such as wheat gluten and soy protein, also offer versatility in structural formation, and texturized soy proteins can produce meatlike textural attributes with high nutritional quality.
These components have been used with success in canned, frozen, or dried pet foods.
Alternative ingredients
Alternative ingredients, such as single-cell organisms (SCO: yeast, fungi, and algae) and insects, are being evaluated as potential meat or plant substitutes.
The idea behind use of SCO and insects is that they can be grown on carbon sources that might otherwise be considered unrecoverable in the food production system. For example, a recent LCA of microbial protein produced using a potato wastewater system reported an 87% lower impact on the ecosystem compared with traditional soybean meal production.
Environmental impact of microbial protein from potato wastewater as feed ingredient: comparative consequential life cycle assessment of three production systems and soybean meal.
Microbial proteins are currently being used as a source of high-quality protein and essential fatty acids in aquaculture and are reported to contain higher levels of crude protein compared with conventional animal or plant sources.
Insects, such as black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) larvae, housefly (Musca domestica), and mealworm (Tenebrio molitor), are a major protein source in many countries in Asia, Africa, and Latin America, but are less common in the United States because of negative public perceptions.
Application of insect protein as a key ingredient in pet food formulation has gained interest; however, there are few data regarding nutritional quality, and regulatory approvals are pending.
Through LCA, the environmental impact translates to roughly 851 gha of cropland, 14 TJ of energy, and 686,821 KL of water used to produce 1 metric ton of pet food.
There is room for improvement, but the impacts made by producing food for dogs and cats are estimated to be lower than many human food product industries.
Impacts on cropland are not directly affected by processing, but energy usage and water could be decreased with operational planning, such as installing more energy efficient equipment or reducing the amount of water used during extrusion or retort processing. A tuna canning plant for pet food in Thailand reduced their water consumption by 32% by switching to hot water and reducing water usage when cleaning cans, cooling cans with pressurized spray nozzles, and teaching employees about the importance of using less water and how they could make a difference.
Many such decisions could be considered when new pet food manufacturing facilities are built.
Food Packaging
Food packaging serves many important functions, including protecting food from spoilage and nutritional degradation, improving efficiencies in distribution and storage, and serving as a source of information to feed regulators and pet owners. Pet food bags and containers are commonly constructed from layers of plastic (polyethylene and its derivatives), paper and paperboard, or metals (aluminum, tin, or steel). Most pet food packages are also designed for single use and nonrecyclable, leaving pet owners few options besides disposal.
Packaging developers face many challenges with regards to sustainability. In order for sustainable packaging to be effective, it must reduce food waste, preserve food quality, and prevent food contamination. It must also address the issue of plastic waste accumulation in the environment. In addition, the materials must also be nontoxic for humans and animals, and cost-effective for feasibility of use.
Assessing the environmental sustainability of food packaging: an extended life cycle assessment including packaging-related food losses and waste and circularity assessment.
The next generation of sustainable food packaging research is focusing on the use of renewable starting materials to develop biodegradable polymeric films. For example, dairy-based films are currently being explored as an alternative to petroleum-based packaging by the Agricultural Research Service.
Agricultural Research Service Improving the sustainability and quality of food and dairy products from manufacturing to consumption via process modeling and edible packaging. Research project #428714. United States Department of Agriculture.
Biopolymers from cornstarch, chitosan, carrot processing waste, cellulose, and other agricultural products also show promise for biodegradable film construction in the effort to reduce plastic wastes accumulation in the environment.
However, the cost and performance of ecofriendly and lower-barrier packaging compared with synthetic alternatives may still impede their widespread adoption.
Transportation and Distribution
The transportation of material between each phase of the pet food life cycle is an integral part of today’s modern food system; however, it contributes directly to fossil fuel consumption and GHG emissions. The EPA estimates a total 6677 million metric tons of GHG emissions were produced in the United States in 2018, of which transportation was the largest contributor at 29%, followed by electricity (27%), industry (22%), commercial and residential (13%), and agriculture (10%).
The concept of “food miles” is an important consideration because many raw materials, packaging, and finished products embark on global transport through its life cycle. Reduction of pet food’s carbon footprint through sourcing local or regional raw materials is a marketing strategy that has gained popularity.
In addition to geographic distance traveled, the method of transport has an impact on GHG emissions from fossil fuel combustion. The US Department of Transportation estimates that the largest share of total GHG emissions by vehicle type are passenger vehicles and light-duty trucks (59%), medium and heavy-duty trucks (23%), aircraft (9%), ships and boats (3%), rail (2%), and buses, motorcycles, and pipelines (4%).
Many of the early pet food life-cycle phases use bulk transportation of dry ingredients, which minimizes the number of vehicles required, and thus the environmental burden. However, when transportation of high-moisture commodities, such as fresh or frozen animal or plant products, is required, the use of refrigerated trucks can exacerbate energy consumption. Consumer shopping behaviors, such as transportation method, trip length, and trip frequency, also play an important role in the “last mile” of the pet food life cycle.
Direct-to-consumer models are estimated to have a net carbon footprint similar to traditional brick-and-mortar retailers because of expedited shipping methods, an increase in lightweight parcel delivery vehicles routing to pet owner residences, and inefficient transit packaging to protect the product from damage in shipping.
During annual visits, veterinarians have the opportunity to educate owners on the importance of pet foods and ingredients, as well as guidance on diet selection, feeding quantities, and waste management strategies, thus influencing the environmental impact of their clients and patients.
Veterinarians also play a central role in the sustainable farming of livestock animals.
Because veterinarians are a trusted source of information for livestock producers, communicating about animal welfare, judicious use of antibiotics, and the search for alternative and sustainable sources of food for livestock are a few key factors in which veterinarians can take a lead. Furthermore, veterinary professionals serve as educators of food safety, food quality, food security, and biodiversity maintenance. Because of the nature of veterinary professionals’ daily duties and their regular interaction with both livestock producers and pet owners, the hands-on sharing of information has become critical for a client to begin considering sustainability in the food selections they make for their animals.
Summary
Sustainability in the pet food industry can be summarized as those practices and beliefs that can continue indefinitely for future generations. Key opportunities for the improvement to sustainability of pet foods involve sustainable ingredient selection, avoiding nutritional and feeding excesses, and optimizing resource and waste management. Progress will depend on the collective efforts of suppliers, manufacturers, personnel, availability of ingredients, and consumer purchasing choices. There are many aspects of the pet food industry that are sustainable, such as using coproducts from the human food industry and decreasing energy and natural resources used during production. In fact, pet food production is more sustainable than many human food processing industries in terms of cropland, energy, and water usage. However, the pet food industry’s ability to adopt some of these practices is limited by negative perceptions of coproducts and novel ingredients, as well as expectations for increasingly rapid product delivery. It also appears that pet owners may not fully understand the direct impacts purchasing decisions have on sustainability. Veterinarians are uniquely positioned to educate pet owners when they bring their animals in for examinations. This education could be in the form of providing more information about the benefits of coproducts discussed here and how to decrease the impact of their pets on the sustainability of pet food. Pet food companies respond to the values of pet owners, and an increase in pet owner awareness and interest in sustainability will encourage the pet food industry to continue improving in this area.
Clinics care points
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Veterinarians have an opportunity to cultivate sustainable practices by educating clients on proper waste disposal, conscientious food selection, and optimal feeding management.
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Veterinarians can help socially conscious pet owners manage their pet’s diet in a sustainable manner by encouraging a modest level of protein and the use of conventional ingredients.
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Evidence provided by life-cycle analysis indicates that plant-origin ingredients tend to have a lower carbon footprint compared with animal-origin ingredients, and that poultry, fish, and rendered animal proteins have a lower carbon footprint compared with large ruminant proteins.
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The carbon footprint of pet ownership in the United States is trivial compared with that of the human waste, transportation, and industrial sectors.
Disclosure
The authors have nothing to disclose.
References
American Pet Products Association (APPA)
Pet industry market size and ownership statistics.
European Pet Food Industry Federation (FEDIAF); C&D Foods; FACCO, Chambre Syndicale des Fabricants d’Aliments pour Chiens, Chats, Oiseaux et autres Animaux Familiers (the French Pet Food Association for Dogs, Cats, Birds and Other Domestic Pets); Mars PetCare Europe; Nestlé Purina PetCare Europe; Saturn Petcare GmbH, and Quantis. Product environmental footprint category rules (PEFCRs): prepared pet food for cats and dogs, final version; European Commission: Brussels, Belgium.
Cats have increased protein digestibility as compared to dogs and improve their ability to absorb protein as dietary protein intake shifts from animal to plant sources.
Environmental impact of microbial protein from potato wastewater as feed ingredient: comparative consequential life cycle assessment of three production systems and soybean meal.
Assessing the environmental sustainability of food packaging: an extended life cycle assessment including packaging-related food losses and waste and circularity assessment.
Improving the sustainability and quality of food and dairy products from manufacturing to consumption via process modeling and edible packaging. Research project #428714. United States Department of Agriculture.
Godard C, Boissy J, Suret C, et al. LCA of Starch Potato from Field to Starch Production Plant Gate. In: 8th International Conference on LCA in the Agri-Food Sector. October 2-4 2012; Rennes, France.
Prediction of crude protein, extractable fat, calcium and phosphorus contents of broiler chicken carcasses using near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy.
The amino acid composition and protein quality of various egg, poultry meal by-products, and vegetable proteins used in the production of dog and cat diets.
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